The Malaysian Journal of Chinese Studies is published by New Era University College, Malaysia, a non-profit institution of higher learning supported by the community. First published in 2012, it is the only English-language journal in Malaysia that is devoted to the dissemination of original research on the Chinese communities. It is a peer-reviewed, interdisciplinary journal that publishes articles, reviews, and research notes based on the scholarly studies of contemporary Chinese societies in Southeast Asia and elsewhere in the world. The journal is issued biannually (June and December) in print and electronic versions. We welcome contributions based on empirical, comparative, or theoretical research that are of interest to a wide range of scholars.
Questioning the Narrative: A Review of the book China Rising: USA and West Responses: A Critical Review Essay, by Teck-Ghee Lim
Questioning the Narrative: A Review of the book China Rising: USA and West Responses: A Critical Review Essay (in Chinese), by Teck-Ghee Lim. Strategic Information and Research Development Centre (SIRD), 2026, 195 pp. ISBN: 9786297575605.
Copyright (c) 2026 Malaysian Journal of Chinese Studies
Tan Kim Ching (1829 –1892): Transnational Trade and Politics in 19th Century Southeast Asia
This paper examines Tan Kim Ching (1829–1892), a Singapore-based Chinese merchant, to illustrate the transnational role of Chinese business leaders in shaping the political and economic landscape of nineteenth-century Southeast Asia. As one of the wealthiest merchants of his era, Tan operated across multiple spheres: leader of Singapore's Hokkien community and the Ghee Hin secret society, Siamese consul and governor of Kraburi, business partner to prominent European merchants, and intermediary between British colonial officials and Malay chiefs. The study analyzes Tan's extensive business networks - encompassing revenue farming, tin mining, rice milling, shipping, and the opium and arms trades - and his intervention in Perak's civil war (1873–1874), where his support for Raja Abdullah influenced the Pangkor Treaty's outcome. It also examines his economic ventures in southern Siam, where he faced competition from the Khaw family network. The paper argues that Tan represents a distinctive type of colonial intermediary whose power derived from a web of family relationships, business partnerships, and sociopolitical connections that transcended emerging state borders. However, this intermediary role proved contingent: as colonial states consolidated administrative control, the need for Chinese leaders to mobilize labor, collect revenue, and manage communal affairs diminished. Tan's career thus marks both the height and the beginning of the decline of such transnational Chinese merchant-power brokers in Southeast Asia.
Too Nam (1854–1939): Christian Leader and Social Reformer in the Chinese Revolutionary Movement of Malaya
Too Nam (杜南, 1854–1939) was a Chinese Christian in Malaya whose life linked educational work, social reform, and the revolutionary movement led by Sun Yat-sen. Trained in the classics before conversion, he moved from Hawaii to Kuala Lumpur, where he founded schools and Christian associations, campaigned against opium, and used film for the revolutionary cause. After 1911, Sun issued him a citation of merit. However, the role of Chinese Christians in Malaya’s revolutionary activities has received little attention. This study uses Too Nam’s career to examine how Christian faith and institutions shaped nationalist engagement among the overseas Chinese. He remained in Kuala Lumpur until his death, working in education and church life. His example suggests how religious conviction intersected with political activism in the diaspora.
The Application of Sun Tzu’s Art of War in Modern Management and Business Strategy: A Literature Review
Classical strategic philosophy continues to influence modern management thought. Over the past decade, new research has found that Sun Tzu's Art of War applies not only to ancient military texts but also to business strategy and modern management. However, existing research is scattered and requires a systematic review. The current systematic review aims to fill this gap by incorporating 29 articles indexed in the Clarivate Analytics Web of Science (WoS) database between 2016 and 2025 using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Through thematic synthesis, this study reveals the implications of Sun Tzu's Art of War for corporate planning, resource allocation, and management behavior in three main themes, which are strategic decision-making, leadership development, and competitive advantage. The results demonstrate that the ancient military treatises on military strategy are equally applicable to today's dynamic environment. This paper also discusses the implications and limitations of these findings for future research and practice.
Digitalisation for Cultural Sustainability: Using a 2D Educational Game to Preserve Traditional Chinese Funeral Knowledge
Digitalisation can play an important role in sustaining cultural knowledge and social values, particularly among younger generations who engage deeply with interactive media. This study explores how a 2D educational horror game can preserve and transmit traditional Chinese funeral knowledge through experiential learning. The game, titled Funeral Fun, was developed in Unity with AI assisted tools for visual and audio assets, and integrates funeral rituals into three mini games that focus on ritual preparation, cultural knowledge, and appropriate behavioural conduct. Emotional tension and horror elements are used to enhance attention, memory, and engagement while maintaining respectful representation of sacred practices. A mixed descriptive quantitative and qualitative approach was adopted through user acceptance testing with 15 university students, using questionnaires that combined knowledge questions, Likert scale ratings, and open-ended feedback. The results show substantial improvements in ritual knowledge retention, high perceived educational value, and generally positive usability, with participants demonstrating understanding not only of procedural steps and taboos but also of underlying values such as filial piety and respect for the deceased. The findings suggest that educational horror games can support digitalisation for cultural sustainability by linking cultural heritage, interactive learning, and future ready digital literacy.
Review of the book Musings of a Common Man: Growing Up in Malaysia, by Khong Kim Hoong
Review of the book Musings of a Common Man: Growing Up in Malaysia, by Khong Kim Hoong. Pusat Sejarah Rakyat, Kuala Lumpur. xviii + 378 pp. ISBN: 978-967-26834-4-5.
Marriage Intention among Malaysian Chinese Young Adults: The Roles of Family Relationships, Filial Piety, and Perceived Social Support
The decline in marriage intentions is a global trend, including in Malaysia. Yet, research on Malaysian Chinese young adults remains limited. This study explored how family relationships, filial piety, and perceived social support predict marriage intention among young Chinese adults in Malaysia. A quantitative cross-sectional online survey was conducted using purposive and convenience sampling to recruit Malaysian Chinese individuals aged 18 to 26 who were single or in a relationship. The Brief Family Relationship Scale (BFRS), Filial Behaviour Scale (FBS), Multidimensional Perceived Social Support Scale (MSPSS), and Intent to Marry Scale (IMS) were administered. A total of 324 participants took part (M = 22.27 years; SD = 1.71 years). Pearson correlation indicated a significant positive relationship between filial piety, perceived social support, family relationships, and marriage intention. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that perceived social support and filial piety were significant predictors of marriage intention, whereas family relationships were not. These findings provide an interesting perspective on marriage intentions and provide empirical evidence for policymakers to develop evidence-based initiatives aimed at increasing marriage intentions among Malaysian Chinese young adults and highlight the importance of social support and filial values in enhancing marriage intentions in this population.
Review of the book Lim Kit Siang: Malaysian First, Volume Two — Bold to the Last Battle by Thuan-Chye Kee
Review of the book Lim Kit Siang: Malaysian First, Volume Two — Bold to the Last Battle by Thuan-Chye Kee. Strategic Information & Research Development Centre, Petaling Jaya. 549 pp. ISBN: 9786297575131
Copyright (c) 2025 Malaysian Journal of Chinese Studies
Struggle, Survival, and Sustainability: Ngeow Sze Chan and the Evolution of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Post-War Malaysia
The profound political and socio-economic transformations that swept through Malaya following World War Two fundamentally reshaped the nation's social and medical landscapes. In this rapidly modernisation, post-colonial environment, Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) faced critical obstacles in legitimising its practise, securing its educational future, and achieving structural integration. This study examines this crucial period in the development of TCM in Post-War Malaysia through th elens of a key practitioner and institutional builder, Ngeow Sze Chan (1915-2002). Utilising a historical case-study approach, and drawing upon biographical sources, archival documents, news clippings and association publications, this study traces Ngeow's pivotal role in steering the field from initial struggle and survival toward long-term sustainability. The findings argue that the enduring sustainability of TCM in contemporary Malaysia is not merely a consequence of cultural preservation, but the direct result of strategic institutional evolution championed by figures like Ngeow. He was instrumental in transforming TCM from a localised, community-based practice into a formalised, regulated profession.
Ngeow Sze Chan; Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM); Post-war Malaysia; Modernisation; Medical history
Chinese studies, History of Medicine in Malaysia
Review of the book An Ethical Literary Criticism of Dr Han Suyin’s Autobiography: Braving Irrationality, by Florence Kuek
Review of the book An Ethical Literary Criticism of Dr Han Suyin’s Autobiography: Braving Irrationality, by Florence Kuek. Routledge, 2025, 130 pp. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003466918; eBook ISBN9781003466918.
Are Chinese Indonesians Part of Bangsa Indonesia? The Role of Siauw Giok Tjhan And Baperki In Indonesia’s Nation-Building
This paper examines the role of Siauw Giok Tjhan, chairman of Baperki (Badan Permusyawaratan Kewarganegaraan Indonesia), the largest Chinese Indonesian organisation before the 1965 Coup, in advocating for equal citizenship (kewarganegaraan) for Chinese Indonesians. Siauw distinctly equated citizenship with nationhood (kebangsaan), using the two concepts interchangeably.While the Indonesian nation comprises various indigenous ethnic groups (suku), Chinese Indonesians—though formally recognised as citizens—have long struggled to be fully accepted as part of the nation. Some, such as Peranakan Chinese leaders, advocated for complete assimilation into indigenous society as a means to achieve equal status. Siauw, however, opposed this approach. He believed that Chinese Indonesians should preserve their ethnic identity, arguing that true integration could only be achieved once they were recognised as equal citizens. In 1963, President Sukarno proposed recognising the Peranakan Chinese as one of Indonesia’s suku but Siauw ignored this concept, remaining steadfast in his belief that Indonesian citizenship was synonymous with Indonesian nationhood. He later encouraged Chinese Indonesians to actively participate in revolutionary movements, convinced that the national question would be resolved by realising socialism in Indonesia. Contrary to Siauw’s vision, Chinese Indonesians were subjected to forced assimilation policies under President Suharto. Following Suharto’s fall in 1998, the issue of suku resurfaced, and the endeavour to recognise Peranakan Tionghoa or Tionghoa) as an Indonesian suku continues. This paper, therefore, revisits Siauw’s perspectives on the Indonesian nation and suku, tracing the development of his political thought and examining its relevance in the contemporary discourse on Chinese Indonesian identity and integration.
Review of the book Narratives from Piyamit: Life Stories at the End of the Revolution by Jason Sze-Chieh Ng & Murray Hunter
Review of the book Narratives from Piyamit: Life Stories at the End of the Revolution by Jason Sze-Chieh Ng & Murray Hunter. SIRD and New Era University College, Malaysia, 2024, 249 pp. ISBN:978-629-7575-33-9
The Use of Modal Auxiliaries as Hedging Devices in Chinese Research Articles
This study investigates the use of six Chinese modal auxiliaries as hedging devices in academic abstracts. Drawing on a corpus of 40 abstracts—evenly sampled from Economics, Linguistics, Engineering, and Natural Sciences (10 per discipline). We analyzed the document-level frequencies, functional distributions, and disciplinary variations of the target modals. The primary finding is a generally sparse use of modalisation overall. The abstracts predominantly relied on 会 (hui), 可以 (keyi), and 能(够) (neng(gou)), while 可能 (keneng) and 应该 (yinggai) were rare or entirely absent in several disciplines. Cross-disciplinary contrasts at the abstract level were modest: Economics and Natural Sciences showed slightly broader type coverage, while Linguistics and Engineering were more restricted in the range of modals used. Functionally, these modal auxiliaries in abstracts more often served to create explanatory linkage between propositions than to express epistemic uncertainty. The implications of these patterns for understanding the rhetorical conventions of Chinese academic abstract writing are discussed.
Modal Auxiliaries; Chinese Research Article; Frequency and Distribution; Hedging devices; Disciplinary differences.
The Shadow of Archipelagos: (Un)Identified Identities in Abang Adik and The Stateless
This paper examines the representation of statelessness in the Malaysian film Abang Adik (富都青年) and Nakazono Eisuke’s (中薗英助) novel The Stateless (無國籍者), both of which use the imagery of stateless individuals as a focal point for exploring issues of identity and state power. In Abang Adik, two brothers, born and raised in Malaysia, are rendered stateless due to their inability to obtain identification cards, highlighting how the state apparatus exercises power and violence through identity classification. Similarly, the protagonist of Nakazono’s The Stateless is an undocumented immigrant who speaks only Chinese but insists on identifying as Japanese, yet remains unable to secure any definite recognition of his nationality. Both works critique the reduction of identity to rigid, singular classifications, exposing how such simplifications serve to erase historical traumas. Director Jin Ong’s (王禮霖) experience as a migrant worker in Taiwan, along with Nakazono’s experience during Japan’s occupation of Beijing in the 1940s, prompted both creators to reconsider the complexities and fluidity of being Chinese, Malaysian, or Japanese. While questioning the authentic assumptions underlying rigid identity classifications, this study draws on Nakazono’s postwar critical reflections on war responsibility and memory, seeking to clarify his assertion that “statelessness functions as a medium of negation,” and to explore its potential for unsetting rigid identity constructs. This paper examines Ong and Nakazono’s trans-border experiences and considers (un)identities as an ongoing, unfinished processes rather than fixed categories, opening up possibilities for rethinking belonging beyond rigid singular defined frameworks.
stateless, Nakazono Eisuke, Abang Adik, state power, unfinished experience
High-Order Control: The Construction Strategy of Preschool Children’s Intrinsic Order
It is necessary for preschool teachers to control the discipline to manage an orderly and harmonious classroom, which creates a free and happy environment for children to focus on their work and cooperation energetically. As results of low-order control, either adopting strictly compulsory management maintains apparent uniformity, or free development without guidance leads to unorganized freedom. The core of constructing an orderly and effective class is to develop the intrinsic order of each child, which requires high-order control by preschool teachers. And these basic strategies become essential, such as categorical guidance through observation of children’s behavior, positioning the problem crux through comparison of development indicators, innovative guidance approaches by focusing on individual differences and so on.
core literacy, high-order control, intrinsic order, class discipline
Malaysian Chinese and Nation-building: Before Merdeka and Fifty Years After Volumes 1 and 2, edited by Voon Phin Keong
My Story by Lim Goh Tong Biography of Wee Kheng Chiang by Lam Chee Kheung (in Chinese)
My Story, by Lim Goh Tong. Subang Jaya: Pelanduk Publications, 2004 (also available in Chinese), vi + 187 pages (ISBN 967-978-859-8 (pb); 967-978-892-X (hb) Biography of Wee Kheng Chiang, by Lam Chee Kheung, Kuching: Wee Hood Teck & Co, 2005 (available only in Chinese), iv + 169 pages (soft cover ISBN 983-99454-3-2)
Yao Tuo: A First Generation Malaysian Chinese Writer
This is a study of Yao Tuo and his literary works and an overview of some of his major creations. He was born in war-time China and experienced many difficulties in his youth. He later became a writer and, at the age of thirty-six, settled down in Malaysia and gradually earned a name for himself as a Malaysian Chinese (Mahua) writer. This article discusses his literary works on war-time topics and life in rural China, his representative works on Malaysia and the influence of his life in Malaysia on his literary works. The paper will also explore important factors that have an influence on the man and his works as well as racial and political issues in relation to his life in the Malaysian context. As a writer who gained fame among Chinese readers throughout the Chinese world including Mainland China, Taiwan and Southeast Asia, Yao Tuo’s literary works have left an enduring legacy as they continue to win a wide audience of readers.
Yao Tuo, literary works, Mahua literature
Bold Entrepreneurs and Uncommon Enterprises: The Malaysian Chinese Experience
The Chinese are well known for their hard work and enterprise. Self-reliant and resourceful, the Chinese in Malaysia have always pursued their interests in what they perceive as financially rewarding and personally fulfilling enterprises. This paper discusses two new enterprises that are distinctive for their uniqueness and boldness. These are the breeding of the Asian arowana and the keeping of swiftlets for their edible nests. These products are high-value items that have their respective niche markets. The history of both is of recent origin. Yet each is, in its own way and from the very beginning, a bold and innovative enterprise in its specialization and in the exploitation of local resources. The foresight and innovative spirit of the pioneer entrepreneurs in these enterprises have exploited business opportunities that are, to the average person, generally beyond the range of commercial possibilities. More significant is that these entrepreneurs have shown that, with their unyielding spirit of enterprise and resourcefulness, it is possible to transform the unthinkable into thriving businesses.
Chinese entrepreneurs, swiftlet nest farming, arowana fish breeding, business insights
Anti-Opium Movement, Chinese Nationalism and the Straits Chinese in the Early Twentieth Century
This paper is a study of the anti-opium movement organized by the Straits Chinese leaders in Malaya in the early twentieth century. As the Chinese were the largest group of opium smokers, they were seen as a primary source of government revenue. The leading Chinese medical practitioners in the movement aimed not only at the prohibition of the opium trade but also the cure for opium smoking by medical treatment. As there was no effective cure for the addiction, the idea was radical but unrealistic. The movement leaders believed that if they could treat opium smokers, they could also help China to rid itself of the curse of opium that was forced upon it by Western powers. The rationale behind the antiopium movement was more than for social or economic reasons but was an indirect show of support for Chinese nationalism in China.
anti-opium movement, anti-American boycott movement, Chinese nationalism
Interethnic Relations in Malaysian Campuses: A Historical Review
This paper attempts to reconstruct the dynamics of interethnic relations of university students in Malaysian public campuses from the 1960s to 2005. Based on a synthesis and review of existing literature, the subject is examined at two levels. The first is the evolution of interethnic relations among student leaders in the context of campus student activism and politics, and the other is a synthesis of the state of day-to-day interethnic interaction in the student milieu over the decades. Ethnic dynamics in campus politics could be broadly divided into two phases. Between 1967 and the early 1970s, the two key protagonists were the multiethnic Socialist Club and the Malay-based Malay Language Society in the University of Malaya. From 1974 onwards, it was Islamist activism and intra-Malay rivalry that defined the campus dynamics. Selective interethnic cooperation persisted in campus politics till today, especially when non-Malay students constitute a significant proportion of the student population, but it was carried out in varied forms under different circumstances. Discussions of interethnic relations often refer to the “golden age” of ethnic relations in the past. This paper contends that if the university campus is seen as the contemporary, microcosmic reflection of the wider society, then it is clear that such historical memory is at best partial if not inaccurate. The tendency of university students to confine their social interaction within their own ethnic groups had been observed at least since the 1960s, and was even prevalent among those who had gone through English-medium education. In effect, it appears that the pattern of interethnic interaction had not really evolved in any substantial way since at least the mid-1960s. There were arguably even more incidents of serious interethnic tension during the sixties than in current situation.
Interethnic relations, interethnic interaction, campus politics, student activism, racial polarization
Copyright (c) 2012 Malaysian Journal of Chinese Studies
Chinese Capitalism in Colonial Malaya 1900-1941 by William Tai Yuen
Chinese Capitalism in Colonial Malaya 1900-1941, by William Tai Yuen. Bangi: Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2013, 508pp. (Softcover ISBN 978-967-412-021-4).
Copyright (c) 2013 Malaysian Journal of Chinese Studies
Preaching to the Non-Muslim Chinese in Malaysia by Osman Chuah Abdullah
Preaching to the Non-Muslim Chinese in Malaysia, by Osman Chuah Abdullah. Kuala Lumpur: International Islamic University Malaysia, 2022 (Reprinted in 2005), iv+103 pages (ISBN:983-9727-72-9).
Baba Hokkiens, Big Business, and Economic Dominance in Penang and Its Region, 1840s-1900s
This paper intends to reconstruct the transnational, cross-ethnic, and multifaceted experiences of the Southeast Asian Chinese past by centering on the Baba Hokkien business elites in nineteenth-century Penang. These business elites emerged as a preponderant force in the regional economic arena centred around Penang for most of the nineteenth century. How were these Baba Hokkien elites able to achieve such ascendancy in the colonial and indigenous milieux? The answer is that the Baba Hokkien elites successfully established vertical and horizontal strategic alliances not only with the Hakka and Cantonese elites but also the colonial powers, the grassroots, and the indigenous chieftains and royalty and these alliances enabled the Baba Hokkien elites to secure and mobilize labour, capital, power, and network to gain control of a highly diversified range of major businesses that constituted the pillars of Penang's regional economy.
Transforming the Development Frontier: Chinese Pioneers in the Ulu Langat District of Selangor, Malaysia
The Ulu Langat district of Selangor witnessed the beginning of modern development in the late nineteenth century. This was one of numerous localities in the country that was responding to demands for commodities from overseas market. It was this transformation of place that made up the totality of the country's development process. Contributing to this process were Malays and communities of Indonesian, Chinese and Indian immigrants, Europeans, and commercial enterprises. Understanding the process of development of a place requires attention to the past and local situations. This study will focus on the role of Chinese pioneers and settlers in changing the face of Ulu Langat during the era of British rule. The Chinese were engaged in the opening of tin mines, the spontaneous agricultural pioneering especially of rubber, and in the establishment of settlements. The development process is in effect a chronicle of the transformation of virgin forests into a cultural and economic landscape. The Ulu Langat experience reveals insights to a distinctive model of development contributed characteristically by the Chinese during the colonial era.
The Teaching of Chinese Language in Malaysian Chinese Primary Schools: Subtle Changes in Content and Objectives
The Chinese Primary Schools or the Sekolah Rendah Jenis Kebangsaan (Cina) (SRJK) are often regarded as the last fortress of Chinese education in Malaysia. If this is true, then the Chinese language subject taught in these schools can be seen as the bedrock of the fortress. However, over the years with numerous education policy changes, there have been many subtle changes to the nature and system of the Chinese primary schools and the Chinese language subject that may have gone uninspected. These changes can be for better or for worse for the development of Chinese language education in Malaysia. This paper will examine the subtle changes in the objectives, aims and teaching of Chinese language subject as a reflection on how policy shifts-in the independence period from the 1950s to 1970s; after the "3M system" implemented in 1983; and the education reforms in the 1990s-affect the nature and objective of the Chinese primary school education.
New Villages in Malaysia: Living Conditions and Political Trends
The history, growth and development of New Village (NVs) in Malaysia are common issues of discussion. The actions of relevant authorities to deal with the persistent problems of NVs have seldom been comprehensive and successful. This paper explores issues that appear to challenge NVs in their present form and to examine whether such challenges will contribute to the growth of NVs or to their stagnation. Several issues and possibilities concerning NVs are raised and preliminary findings are extrapolated to place the dilemma of the NVs in perspective. Issues of polities, liveability and sustainability are discussed in relation to the future of NVs in this country. The current national housing policy has to divert sufficient attention to address issues concerning the liveability of NVs. The long term neglect of NVs can result in negative political repercussions for the ruling coalition government. As attested by recent electoral votes, the discontentment with living conditions in the NVs is refelcted in the inhabitants' voting behaviour and shift of support to the opposition parties. For the ruling coalition to arrest their declining popularity in the NVs, there is a need for the relevant authorities to revitalize new villages and improve the quality of homes and living environment arising from demographic, social and economic changes. It is clear that national development plans should take into account the future of NVs in a comprehensive and more balanced perspective.
Mixed Marriage, Language, and Identity: The Children of Chinese-Indian Parentage in Malaysia
The study explores the social identity by children of Chinese-Indian parentage in Malaysia through their choice of language. The focus is on two key perspectives: firstly, verification of their spoken language and secondly, social identification based on their choice of the language in communication with family members and friends. The discussion is based on interviews of a small sample of respondents from different states in Malaysia. The evidence suggests that social identity is influenced by the choice of language by the respondents. Children of Chinese-Indian parentage tend to choose to use the English language and the ethnicity that they would like to be identified as is Chinese-Indian, but not purely Chinese or Indian.
Chinatowns in a Globalization Southeast Asia, edited by Leo Suryadinata and Ang Cher Kiat
Chinatowns in a Globalizing Southeast Asia, edited by Leo Suryadinata and Ang Cher Kiat, Photographs and Captions by Zhuang Wubin. 168 pages, (hardcover ISBN-13:978-981-08-2184-5) Singapore: Chinese Heritage Centre, 2009.
War Memory and the Making of Modern Malaysia and Singapore, edited by Kevin Blackburn and Karl Hack
War Memory and the Making of Modern Malaysia and Singapore, edited by Kevin Blackburn and Karl Hack, Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2012, 476 pages (Softcover ISBN: 978-9971-69-599-6)*